Ukraine in the 20th and 21st Centuries: From the Holodomor to War with Russia
Ukraine’s modern history is defined by both tragedy and resilience. At the heart of Europe’s borderlands, Ukraine has often been caught between great powers, its independence suppressed, and its people subjected to immense suffering. From the upheavals of the early 1900s, through the Holodomor under Soviet rule, to independence in 1991 and the ongoing war with Russia, Ukraine’s story is one of survival against relentless attempts to deny its sovereignty.
Early 20th Century and the Struggle for Statehood
At the dawn of the 20th century, Ukraine was divided between empires. Eastern and central regions were ruled by the Russian Empire, while western Ukraine lay within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Ukrainian language and culture were often suppressed, particularly in Russian-controlled territories where efforts at Russification sought to erase distinct Ukrainian identity.
The chaos following World War I and the Russian Revolution opened a window for Ukrainian independence. In 1917, after the collapse of the Russian monarchy, the Ukrainian People’s Republic was proclaimed in Kyiv. However, Ukraine quickly became a battleground for multiple forces: Bolsheviks, nationalists, White Russian armies, and foreign occupiers. For a brief period, several Ukrainian governments claimed authority, but by 1921, most of Ukraine had been forcibly incorporated into the new Soviet Union. Western territories, meanwhile, were divided between Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. The dream of a lasting independent state was crushed—at least for the time being.
Collectivization and the Holodomor
The 1920s initially saw limited cultural autonomy for Ukraine under Soviet policy, known as “Ukrainization.” Ukrainian literature, education, and political life briefly flourished. But this changed dramatically when Joseph Stalin consolidated power. Determined to industrialize the USSR and exert absolute control, Stalin launched forced collectivization of agriculture in the late 1920s.
Ukraine, known as Europe’s “breadbasket,” became a primary target. Farmers, many of whom resisted giving up their land and grain, were labeled “kulaks” (wealthy peasants) and enemies of the state. The Soviet regime imposed impossibly high grain quotas, confiscated food, and punished villages that failed to comply. Armed units sealed off communities, preventing starving peasants from fleeing to cities or neighboring regions.
The result was a catastrophic famine between 1932 and 1933, known as the Holodomor (“death by hunger”). Estimates suggest that between 3 and 4 million Ukrainians died. Eyewitness accounts describe entire villages perishing, parents unable to feed their children, and bodies left unburied because survivors were too weak. Scholars widely regard the Holodomor as a man-made famine, deliberately engineered to break Ukrainian resistance and suppress national identity.
This famine was not only a humanitarian catastrophe but also a political tool. By decimating Ukraine’s rural population, Stalin undermined a social base that might have resisted Soviet control. The trauma of the Holodomor left deep scars on Ukrainian society, shaping collective memory and reinforcing mistrust of Moscow’s authority.
World War II and Soviet Domination
The Second World War brought further devastation. In 1939, under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union annexed western Ukrainian lands from Poland. Two years later, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, turning Ukraine into a central battleground. Occupation was brutal: millions of Ukrainians perished, including Jews targeted in the Holocaust. Cities like Kyiv and Kharkiv were reduced to rubble, while partisan resistance movements operated in forests and rural areas.
By 1944, the Red Army retook Ukraine, but liberation quickly gave way to renewed Soviet domination. Nationalist movements in western Ukraine continued to resist, fighting guerrilla wars against Soviet forces into the early 1950s. The postwar decades saw rapid industrialization and urbanization, but also strict political repression. Ukrainian culture was censored, and the memory of the Holodomor was silenced in official Soviet narratives.
The Road to Independence
Despite repression, Ukrainian identity endured. Intellectuals, writers, and dissidents kept alive the idea of national sovereignty, often at great personal cost. The 1980s brought cracks in the Soviet system under Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). In Ukraine, these reforms encouraged discussion of long-suppressed topics like the Holodomor and environmental disasters such as the Chernobyl nuclear accident of 1986, which highlighted the Soviet government’s negligence.
As the Soviet Union weakened, Ukrainian independence movements gained momentum. On August 24, 1991, Ukraine’s parliament declared independence, and in a December referendum, more than 90% of Ukrainians voted to approve it, with strong support across all regions. For the first time in centuries, Ukraine stood as a sovereign state.
Independence and Democratic Struggles
The decades following independence were turbulent. Ukraine faced immense economic challenges, widespread corruption, and internal political divisions. Still, democracy took root, with elections and peaceful transfers of power.
In 2004, the Orange Revolution erupted after a fraudulent election that initially declared Moscow-backed Viktor Yanukovych the winner. Massive protests in Kyiv’s Independence Square (the Maidan) forced a re-run of the vote, bringing pro-Western candidate Viktor Yushchenko to power. This movement reinforced Ukraine’s democratic aspirations and its desire for closer ties with Europe.
Nearly a decade later, the Euromaidan protests of 2013–2014 marked another turning point. When President Yanukovych (back in office) rejected a planned association agreement with the European Union in favor of closer ties with Russia, Ukrainians again flooded the streets demanding change. After months of protests and deadly clashes with security forces, Yanukovych fled the country in February 2014.
Russia’s Annexation of Crimea and the Donbas War
Russia reacted swiftly and aggressively to Ukraine’s pro-European trajectory. In March 2014, Russian troops occupied and illegally annexed Crimea, citing the need to protect ethnic Russians and strategic interests in the Black Sea. Shortly after, Moscow fueled separatist uprisings in eastern Ukraine’s Donbas region, supplying arms, financing, and even soldiers. The ensuing conflict killed more than 14,000 people between 2014 and 2021, despite international mediation attempts through the Minsk agreements.
For Ukraine, these years were marked by both hardship and transformation. The army, initially weak and underfunded, grew stronger with Western support. Civil society became more mobilized, reinforcing Ukraine’s national identity in the face of Russian aggression.
The 2022 Invasion and Full-Scale War
On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the largest war in Europe since World War II. Russian President Vladimir Putin justified the assault with false claims that Ukraine was not a legitimate nation and that it needed to be “denazified.”
Initial attacks targeted Kyiv, Kharkiv, and other major cities. Russian forces expected a quick victory, but Ukrainian resistance proved far stronger than anticipated. Under the leadership of President Volodymyr Zelenskyy, Ukraine rallied both militarily and diplomatically, receiving unprecedented levels of support from Western nations.
The war has been marked by indiscriminate missile strikes, atrocities against civilians, and the displacement of millions. At the same time, Ukraine has achieved significant military successes, pushing Russian forces back from Kyiv and regaining territory in the northeast and south. The conflict remains ongoing, reshaping global politics and reaffirming Ukraine’s role as a frontline defender of democratic values in Europe.
Conclusion
Ukraine’s modern history is a cycle of oppression and resistance. From the famine of the Holodomor to the horrors of World War II, from Soviet domination to the struggle for independence, Ukraine has endured immense suffering but never lost its sense of identity. Today’s war with Russia is the latest chapter in this long struggle, echoing earlier attempts to erase Ukraine’s sovereignty.
Yet the story of Ukraine is not only one of victimhood but also of resilience and determination. The same spirit that carried Ukrainians through the Holodomor, Soviet repression, and past revolutions fuels their fight today. Whatever the outcome of the current conflict, Ukraine has already proven itself to be not a borderland or satellite, but a nation with an unshakable commitment to freedom, democracy, and survival.